A small amount of a third type, cassia vera, produced mainly in Java, Celebes and other neighbouring islands, is exported mainly from Makassar, the German Federal Republic being the chief importers.

Within each category, there is a further classification according to the thickness of the quills. Ceylon cinnamon quills imported into the United Kingdom are mainly used industrially in the manufacture of a wide variety of processed foods or for the production of cinnamon bark oil or cinnamon oleoresin. A small quantity is either cut up into pieces about 15 cm or ground into a fine powder or mixed with other spices by spice merchants or millers for the retail pharmaceutical and grocery trades.

Kwantung cassia has an oil content of at least 1.7 ml per 100 g, and Kwangsi 3.4 to 4.0 ml per 100 g, according to information provided in 1974 by the Native Product Corporation, Peking (via the British Embassy). This contrasts with Landes (1951), who reported that best quality Kwangsi cassia contained 2 to 2.75 per cent volatile oil and Kwantung 1.0 to 1.2 per cent.

The spices are prepared and supplied to the market in various forms, the most elaborate type of product being the compound cinnamon quills from Sri Lanka.

The harvesting and preparation of cinnamon in Sri Lanka is generally undertaken for a farmer by contract peelers, usually a group of two families. Sufficient material is cut for a day’s peeling, the working day being from about 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. Stems, measuring 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter, are cut early in the morning and the twigs and leaves are detached; the last may be retained for distillation purposes. The cut stems are then bundled and are transported by bullock cart to the peeling shed.

The Korintji and Padang (syn. Batavia) forms are graded by appearance into A, B, C and D types according to length, colour and quality, and are sold on their content of volatile oil. The USA is the main importer of Indonesian cassia, and experience there shows that the volatile-oil content usually varies between 1.3 per cent for Korintji C and 4 per cent for Korintji A, and between 1 per cent for Batavia C and 2.7 per cent for Batavia A. There is one other grade, Batavia AA, where the oil content is of little importance since the product is sold (in the USA) for packing in glass bottles where appearance is all-important.

Seychelles Cinnamon is a post from: The Grow Garden

The National Dahlia Society also works in conjunction with the Royal Horticultural Society towards the better appreciation of the dahlia. The instrument here is the Joint Dahlia Committee, composed of an equal number of members from both societies. This committee is responsible for the classification of the dahlia into its differing forms and sizes, but not for the actual listing of varieties in accordance with this classification which is done by the National Dahlia Society.

Modern varieties, without doubt, are really wonderful, both in formation and in the period and length of blooming. The majority of giant varieties have originated overseas, although we have several raisers of these varieties within the confines of the British Isles, notably that doyen of the dahlia, Mr Harry Stredwick, whose giants are famous the world over.

Certain members of this committee are responsible for the compilation of the National Register of Varieties, a register which is maintained to try to eliminate confusion and duplication of naming wherever possible.

Scotland also has its own society. This society, the Scottish National Chrysanthemum and Dahlia Society, organises at least one big show each year, usually at the Kelvin Hall in Glasgow, and also issues a classified list of varieties. This in the main is similar to that of the National Society but omits many varieties in the major list, adding a number of others of Scottish origin.

It is perhaps a pity that the National List does not include all of these Scottish varieties, but it is not possible for the N.D.S. Committee to classify varieties which they have not seen, so it is only these Scottish varieties which are distributed outside Scotland- and the majority of the worthwhile ones to become so distributed – which can he classified by the Classification Committee. It has been suggested there should be a scheme whereby Scottish blooms could be seen at a Scottish show for classification and perhaps selection for trial at Wisley.

Apart from this, different forms are also attracting the breeder, one of the most attractive being the deeply fringed cactus, of which Dentelle de Venise and Frills are outstanding examples. Then a chrysanthemum-like flower is being evolved, and this may also become popular. Orchid flowered types (in which the florets are involute, rather than revolute, so that the reverse colour is seen) have been known for manyyears but today theyseem to be enjoying more attention than they have ever attracted before. As nearly all these variations have blooms of comparatively small size, there seems to be no reason why some, if not all of them, should not become widely grown.

National Dahlia Society is a post from: The Grow Garden

Harvesting does not usually take place until the trees are at least 10 or 12 years old, unless economic necessity compels the cultivator to harvest them at 4 or 5 years, when the bark will be of inferior quality. They may even be left until they are 20 to 30 years of age, while forest trees may be 40 or 50 years old when they are discovered.

The bark is removed from the standing tree at the time when it lifts easily, starting with the main branches and working down the trunk. A bambdo scaffolding may be erected for the purpose. Horizontal cuts are made about 40 cm apart and vertical cuts some 25-35 cm apart. The rectangles of bark are then removed with the aid of a horn or bamboo spatula. Finally, the tree is felled and the inferior bark removed from the smaller branches. A stump may he left to encourage coppicing.

In comparison to cinnamon bark oil, the production of cassia bark oils is on a relatively small scale with distillation being undertaken in the importing countries. These oils find a limited use in soaps, perfumes, some spice essences and beverages.

The four Cinnamomum species of importance in international trade are C. verum (cinnamon) and the cassias from C. cassia, C. burmannii and C. loureirii. The dried barks of all four species are widely used as flavouring agents; and, in addition, they are utilized to a varying extent for the distillation of their bark oils and for the preparation of solvent- extracted oleoresins.

Cassia oil of commerce is produced in China. It contains cinnamaldehyde as its major constituent and is used for similar purposes to cinnamon bark oil in perfumery and flavouring (after rectification) but its applications are rather more limited.

The cinnamon and cassia barks of commerce have been traditionally marketed under a number of vernacular names. The grading of Ceylon cinnamon is quite elaborate in comparison to other sources of the spice, and exports include compound quills and certain lower grades, obtained as by-products in the preparation of quills, which are known as 4quillings’, `featheritigs’ and ‘chips’. Grading is essentially done on the basis of physical appearance and there is no close correlation with the volatile-oil content, which may range between 0.5 and 2.0 per cent.

Cinnamon bark oil is a post from: The Grow Garden

Cassia, also known as cassia lignea or Chinese cinnamon, is said to be one of the oldest of spices. It was known in China as long ago as 27 B.C., in Egypt in the seventeenth century B.C., and it is said to have been familiar to all the people of the Mediterranean area at an early date. These statements are open to doubt and there is probably some confusion with some other bark.

They should, however, be planted close enough to encourage the formation of a tall straight trunk with as few branches as possible. The best spacing is about 1 m between plants. The use of Tephrosia candida (Roxb.) DC. as a nurse crop has been recommended in Sumatra. This may be sown six months ahead of the cassia in rows about 1 m apart and the young cassia trees are planted in clearings about 60-70 cm in diameter made in the Tephrosia, which later can be cut back to 15 cm and spread between the rows.

Intercropping in the first year with groundnuts or other crops is sometimes practised, but care is necessary, as damage to the roots of the cassia can result in infection by canker, Phytophthora cinnamomi.

The bark has been known as a spice from the earliest times, in Western Europe from the seventh century and in England from the tenth, and the tree has been cultivated in the southernmost provinces of China “from time immemorial”. Cassia is described as similar to cinnamon but cheaper and commoner, and synamome was for lordes, but canelle (cassia) was for commyn people. This contemptuous evaluation of cassia is no longer entirely valid.

C. verum (syn. C. zeylanicum) is the only source of cinnamon and cinnamon oil recognized by the British Pharmacopoeia, whereas the United States Pharmacopoeia permits the use of cassia from various sources. For some time the United States’ ban on imports from Communist China precluded the use of Chinese cassia exported direct from China and they obtained their supply of cassia from C. burmannii from Indonesia, C. loureirii from Vietnam and other sources.

In each country, only the forms of cinnamon and cinnamon oil specified in the appropriate national Pharmacopoeia can properly be used for official pharmaceutical preparations, whereas this limitation does not apply for food-flavouring purposes.

Spacing Cinnamon Plant is a post from: The Grow Garden

The type of soil has a pronounced effect on the quality of the bark. In Sri Lanka the best cinnamon grows around Negombo in the Colombo District of the Western Province in fine white quartz sand.

The other main cinnamon area is the Galle and Matara Districts of the Southern Province, where the lateritic gravelly soil of the low country produces more rapid growth, but the bark obtained is somewhat thicker and coarser than that of the Negombo District. Rocky and stony ground is unsuitable. Waterlogged and marshy areas should be avoided, as they give an undesirable bitter product which is much less aromatic.

Several cultivars with distinctive local names exist in Sri Lanka. The forms recognized by growers include sweet or honey cinnamon, snake cinnamon, camphor cinnamon, astringent cinnamon, mucilaginous cinnamon, wild cinnamon and bloom cinnamon. Their characteristics are not given, but of these only sweet or honey cinnamon is cultivated extensively.

It is the dominant species of the secondary vegetation of the higher and middle slopes. It also occurs and is sometimes planted in the coconut plantations and is also found in the calcareous coastal flats. Mahe is by far the largest producer, as the very steep rocky terrain of Silhouette makes exploitation difficult.

On the smaller islands of Praslin and La Digue, where cinnamon occurs and is exploited, rainfall is only about 1 270 null, with the result that cinnamon is very slow in spreading and is far from abundant.

Athough there are months in which there is less rain, no prolonged dry season occurs and rain is received on about 150 days per year. The crop grows best below 500 in altitude.

Cinnamon Propagation is a post from: The Grow Garden

Cinnamon bark oil is a pale-yellow liquid possessing the delicate aroma of the spice and a sweet and pungent taste. Its major constituent is cinnamaldehyde, but other components present in minor or trace quantities impart the characteristic odour and flavour which distinguishes this oil from other Cinnamomum bark oils. These components include eugenol, eugenol acetate and small amounts of aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters and terpenes. Arctander (1960) attributes the powerful characteristic notes of good oils to the presence of methyl-namylketone together with other, aldehydes and ketones. However, detailed studies of the relationship of the oil composition to its organoleptic properties have not been reported in the literature.

The variation in the properties of the spice according to its grading have been described in the `Products and end-uses’ section, and the current standards are given in the ‘Standard specifications’ section.

Cinnamaldehyde was identified as the major constituent of Sri Lankan cinnamon bark oil by Dumas and Peligot (1834, 1835), and more detailed analyses of the oil composition were undertaken later by chemists of the Schimmel Co. (1892c) and by Walbaum and Huthig (1902).

The characteristic organoleptic properties of the spice and its oleoresin are determined by the composition of their steam-volatile (essential) oils. The small amount of coumarin present also influences the flavour but other non-steam-volatile constituents appear to be unimportant. Detailed analyses of the composition of the natural steam-volatile oil occurring in the spice have not been reported, and its composition must be inferred from the information available on the distilled bark oil. The latter, however, contains some artefacts produced by the distillation procedure and is less esteemed than the spice and oleoresin in organoleptic terms.

Only a few studies of Malagasy cinnamon hark oil have been reported. Distillation in Europe of imported material gave oils in yields of 0.6 to 1.0 per cent, which possessed aldehyde contents of 62 to 65 per cent. Guenther’s oil contained 10 per cent phenols and its odour was considered inferior to that of Sri Lankan bark oil but superior to oils from other sources.

The chemical composition and quality of individual samples of both hark and leaf oils can vary considerably. The factors affecting variation of individual oils include: the geographical origin of the material used, harvesting practice, the distillation method and, in the case of bark oil, the quality of the hark distilled.

The spice and the oleoresin is a post from: The Grow Garden

Cinnamon is the dried bark of Cinnamomum verum (syn. C. zeylanicum). It is indigenous in Sri Lanka, which still produces the largest quantity and best quality, mainly in the form of quills. The Seychelles is the second largest producer, the exports being mainly in the form of rough bark. Small exports are made from the Malagasy Republic.

The spice is used in baking and pickling; it has also a limited use in pharmaceutical products and in incense. Like many other spices, cinnamon was regarded as having aphrodisiac properties.

The Chalais, the caste to which the peeling and preparation of cinnamon bark is now restricted in Ceylon, are said to have emigrated from India in the thirteenth century.

Cinnamon was one of the first spices to be sought after by most fifteenth- and sixteenth-century explorations. It was one of the spices which sent Columbus to the west to discover the eastern spice islands. In his diary for 4 November 1492, we read that, following a reconnaissance of the north coast of Cuba, PinzOn, captain of the Pinto, brought Columbus two pieces of bark, claiming that he had found cinnamon. They were probably Capella winterana (L.) Gaertn., which is still known in the West Indies as wild cinnamon. It was the same search for spices which led Vasco da Gama to round the Cape of Good Hope and reach the Malabar coast of India in 1498.

It seems probable that the ancient Greeks and Romans had both cinnamon and cassia, but the Arab traders who supplied them protected their business interests by deliberately shrouding the sources of their products in mystery. Both Herodotus in the fifth century B.C. and Theophrastus in the fourth century B.C., who believed that cinnamon and cassia came from the neighbourhood of Arabia, had some fantastic stories of their origin, of which the following recounted by Herodotus and is a good example.

`Large birds were said to carry the cinnamon twigs to their nests, which were attached with mud to steep cliffs, inaccessible to men. To harvest the cinnamon, the legend continues, large pieces of fresh donkey meat were placed near the precipitous haunts of these huge creatures, which seized the heavy chunks of carcass with avidity and carried them up to their nests. These lofty perches, not having been built to support such a weight, would collapse to the ground. The natives would then hurriedly collect the cinnamon and take it to the trading centres where, due to its scarcity and alleged dangers of harvest, it was sold at a very high price.

Growing Cinnamon is a post from: The Grow Garden

Incidentally, do please note that whatever form of heating is used, the heating elements should be under the bench; this concentrates the heat where it is most required and, in the case of oil stoves, will keep the pathway free from obstructions. If necessary the soil under the benches should be excavated to allow the heaters to be set into position.

On the other hand, the temperature is automatically controlled by a thermostat, so that very little attention is required, and certainly no stoking, which can be a somewhat unpleasant task on a cold night. Of all the various electrical systems available probably the most useful is that based on a water circulatory system, as there is some small reserve of heat should the current fail and, in addition, the drying effect on the air in the greenhouse is not so marked as in the normal radiant type.

As a compromise soil warming cables can be used to heat the tuber and propagating beds. Space heating will still be required as these cables do not cause any appreciable rise in the air temperature, but this need only be sufficient to maintain a minimum of say 4o to 45 F. Even if electrical space heating is used, with the thermostat set about these figures, the cost of heating will not be unduly high. Alternatively, an oil heater may be used to supply the necessary space heating.

Alternatively a small oil stove may be used, but in this case it is inadvisable to set the stove inside the frame, as, in the confined space of a frame, this form of heater can have most deleterious 2ffects. However it is fairly easy to raise the frame from the ground so that a stove can be set underneath to give bottom heat without fumes. The essentials are a supply of breeze blocks, and a sheet of metal or asbestos, a little larger than the area of the frame.

The stove should be set one under each side bench and, to prevent undue heating effects on the area immediately above the stoves, the heat should he spread along the length of the bench in some way. With most stoves designed for greenhouse use this can be easily contrived by using fairly wide strips of metal, D shaped across the section, running from the air vents of the stove up the length of the house.

The greatest disadvantage of the frame lies in the fact that to tend the plants within it has to be opened, perhaps at a time when weather conditions are far from ideal. Nevertheless if opened on the side opposite to that from which the wind is blowing and sacks or other coverings are draped to cover as much of the open sides as possible, there is little chance of a serious check to growth.

Information on Heating Dahlia Greenhouse is a post from: The Grow Garden

If a spare frame is not available, it is possible to use temporary structures made from loose bricks, breeze blocks, and so on, or even to utilise an open part in the garden without protection, say along the outside edge of the dahlia plot, but in such cases it is probably advisable to bury the pots completely, and also to give each plant a light cane.

The National Show, held each year in the two Royal Horticultural Society Halls, is one of the finest in the world at which the amateur predominates in the competitive classes. The trade exhibits also bear favourable comparison with those of other countries.

The usual potting mixtures are quite suitable, preferably containing some nourishment; John Innes No. 2 is particularly good.

Among its activities it makes available all known information on the dahlia, gives advice to members and affiliated societies, maintains a national register of judges and lecturers and co-operates with similar societies in other countries. Covering, as it does, an extremely wide area, there is a Northern Committee, which looks after the main interests of members north of the Trent, organising at least one provincial show, and staffing bureaux at the bigger Northern shows.

The rest of the treatment follows similar lines to that recommended for the more usual pot culture. It is even possible to grow them in a completely sterile medium, such as sand, or fine aggregate, watering with one of the complete fertilisers recommended for soil-less culture.

Alternatively they can be completely buried in the soil, with the top of the pot about i in. below the level of the soil. Again it is advisable to lighten and enrich the soil into which the pots will go as roots will find their way into this during the summer to obtain some nourishment. Plants grown in this fashion will not require watering at such frequent intervals as they will obtain a large proportion of their requirements direct from the soil. A slight disadvantage is that the expanding tubers will sometimes crack the pots, but it cannot be deemed a serious risk.

Tips on Dahlia Pot Tubers is a post from: The Grow Garden

Camphor oil is obtained by distilling the wood or leaves of Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl, which is a native of China, Japan and Taiwan, the last island producing the greatest amount. C. camphora can be distinguished from the other species of Cinnamomum mentioned above by the leaves being pinninerved, whereas the others have three to five distinct nerves from the base of the leaves proceeding towards the tip; camphor also has stout dormant buds. A large proportion of the world’s camphor is now produced synthetically from pinenc, a turpentine derivative, or from coal tar. Camphor is used in the manufacture of celluloid, in disinfectants and chemical preparations, and has a wide range of medicinal uses. Safrole, produced from the residual oil after camphor extraction, is used in soap and perfume manufacture.

Other species of Cinnamotnum, whose barks are used as spices or in medicine include: C. culilawan (Roxb.) Presl from the Moluccas; C. iners Reinw., which occurs from western India and Tenasserim (Burma) to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines; C. javanicum Bl. in Malaysia and Indonesia; C. part henoxylon (Jack) Nees in Tenasserim and western Malesia; and C. sintoc Bl. in Java. All the binomials and authorities in this section are taken from Kostermans.

Some have cinnamaldehyde, the chief of these being the true cinnamon; some have eugenol and smell like cloves; some have safrole and smell like sassafras; and some contain camphor. Besides these four chemical components, they contain many other aromatic components, which are of importance as they give, or mar, the delicacy of the scents.

The cinnamon in the Seychelles was later found to be Cinnamomum verwn and was spread by birds (see ‘Propagation’ below). It occurs on the islands of Mahe, which is by far the largest producer, Silhouette, Praslin and La Digue. The total area is estimated at 20 000 acres (8 100 ha) and cinnamon is the second in importance of the Seychelles industries after copra, the principal products being cinnamon bark and cinnamon leaf oil.

The stiff exstipulate opposite leaves are somewhat variable in form and size. The petiole is 1-2 cm long, grooved on the upper surface. The lamina is usually 5-18 cm long and 3-10 cm wide, ovate or elliptic, the base is more or less rounded and the tip tends to be somewhat acuminate. There are three, sometimes five, conspicuous longitudinal veins found at the base of the lamina and running almost to the tip. The young leaves of the flush are reddish in colour, later turning dark green above with paler veins and pale glaucous beneath.

The flowers are borne in lax axillary and terminal panicles on the ends of the twigs. The peduncles are creamy white in colour, softly hairy and 5-7 cm long. The individual flowers are very small, about 3 mm in diameter, pale yellow in colour, with a fetid smell, and each subtended by a small ovate hairy bract. The calyx is campanulatc and pubescent with 6 acutely pointed segments. The corolla is absent. There are 9 stamens, with the six outer stamens being opposite the perianth lobes and an inner whorl of 3, inside which are 3 staminodes. Each perfect stamen has a short, hairy filament with two small glands present at its base and a four-celled anther opening by 4 small flap-shaped valves. The ovary is superior, unilocular with a single ovule, tapering to a short style.

Cinnamomum Schaeffer is a post from: The Grow Garden